69th BPSC mains 2023 (general studies 1 )Q1: Write short notes on the following: (a) Indian council Act, 1892 (b)Santhal uprising (c) champaran satyagraha (d) Art and architecture of mauryan period (e) cave painting of eastern india in ancient period

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a significant legislative act passed by the British Parliament to make amendments to the composition and function of legislative councils in British India. This Act was a step towards involving Indians in the legislative process, though still limited in scope, and laid the groundwork for future reforms. Here’s an in-depth look at the Act and its implications:

Background and Context

In the late 19th century, India was under British colonial rule, and there was growing discontent among Indians regarding their lack of representation in governance. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, became a platform for expressing these grievances and demanding reforms. The British government, seeking to quell the rising discontent and incorporate Indian opinions to some extent, decided to introduce changes through the Indian Councils Act of 1892.

Key Provisions of the Act

1. Expansion of Legislative Councils:
   • The Act expanded the number of members in both the central and provincial legislative councils. For instance, the number of additional members in the Viceroy’s Council was increased to 16, and the number in provincial councils was also augmented.
   • This expansion was meant to include more non-official members, including Indians, although the majority of the councils were still composed of officials.
2. Introduction of Indirect Elections:
   • While the Act did not introduce direct elections, it allowed for the nomination of some non-official members through an indirect electoral process.
   • Local bodies, universities, trade associations, and other such groups could now recommend members for the legislative councils. This method was a rudimentary form of election, aimed at involving more Indians in the legislative process without granting full electoral rights.
3. Enhanced Legislative Powers:
   • The Act granted members the right to discuss the budget and address questions to the executive. This was a significant step as it allowed for some degree of scrutiny over the administration’s financial policies.
   • However, the powers were still very limited. For instance, members could not vote on the budget or pass motions of no-confidence.
4. Role of the Governor-General and Governors:
   • The Governor-General and the Governors retained significant control over the legislative councils. They had the authority to accept or reject the recommendations for nominated members.
   • The Act did not diminish the overarching power of the British executive, but it did create a forum for airing grievances and discussing policies.

Impact and Criticism

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a modest reform, and its impact was limited by the constraints still placed on Indian participation. However, it marked a crucial step towards increasing Indian involvement in governance. The Act provided a platform for emerging Indian leaders to engage in legislative processes and advocate for more extensive reforms.

Criticism:

• The Act was criticized for not going far enough. The indirect method of nomination was seen as inadequate compared to direct elections, and the legislative powers granted were minimal.
• The British still held dominant control over the councils, and significant executive decisions remained beyond the purview of Indian members.
• The limited nature of the reforms led to continued agitation and demands for greater self-governance, eventually leading to further reforms in the early 20th century, including the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 and the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a noteworthy attempt to involve Indians in the legislative process and address some of the demands for representation. Although it fell short of the aspirations of Indian nationalists, it set a precedent for future legislative reforms and gradually paved the way for more significant changes in the governance of India. The Act is an important milestone in the history of India’s struggle for self-governance, reflecting the early stages of political awakening and the push towards a more inclusive administrative system.

(b) Santhal uprising (8 marks)

The Santhal Uprising, also known as the Santhal Hool or Santhal Rebellion, was a significant event in the history of tribal resistance in India. This rebellion took place in the mid-19th century, primarily in the regions that now comprise Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. It was a direct response to the exploitative practices and oppressive policies of the British colonial government and their allied zamindars (landlords).

Background and Causes

The Santhal tribe, an indigenous group, lived in the forested regions of the Chotanagpur plateau and the Rajmahal hills. They had a distinct socio-economic structure and cultural identity, primarily relying on agriculture and forest resources for their livelihood. The arrival of British colonial rule disrupted their traditional way of life. Several factors contributed to the uprising:

1. Land Exploitation:
   • The British introduced a new system of land revenue that heavily favored the zamindars and moneylenders. The traditional communal landholding system of the Santhals was replaced with private ownership, leading to widespread land alienation.
   • The Santhals were coerced into signing unfair agreements, often leading to loss of their lands and turning them into tenants or bonded laborers on their own land.
2. Economic Exploitation:
   • Moneylenders exploited the Santhals through usurious lending practices, trapping them in a vicious cycle of debt. The interest rates were exorbitantly high, and the illiterate Santhals were often cheated through false accounting.
   • The economic policies of the British aimed at maximizing revenue collection further impoverished the Santhals, pushing them to the brink of starvation.
3. Social and Cultural Marginalization:
   • The Santhals faced social discrimination and were treated as inferior by both the British and the local non-tribal population.
   • Their traditional customs, religious practices, and social structures were undermined by the colonial authorities, causing cultural alienation.

The Uprising

The Santhal rebellion was ignited in June 1855, led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, along with their siblings Chand and Bhairav. They mobilized the Santhal community, calling for an end to British exploitation and the restoration of their traditional rights. The rebellion saw the participation of tens of thousands of Santhals.

1. Initial Success:
   • The Santhals, armed with traditional weapons like bows and arrows, initially saw success against the British forces and local zamindars. They attacked symbols of British authority, including railway lines, postal communications, and government buildings.
   • The rebellion spread rapidly across the Santhal Parganas, with the insurgents targeting moneylenders and zamindars who had exploited them.
2. British Response:
   • The British government, initially taken aback by the intensity and spread of the rebellion, soon mobilized a large military response.
   • The British forces, equipped with superior weaponry and resources, launched a brutal crackdown on the insurgents. Villages were burned, and suspected rebels were executed without trial.
3. Suppression and Aftermath:
   • By the end of 1856, the rebellion was effectively crushed. Thousands of Santhals were killed, and many were captured and imprisoned.
   • The British government, recognizing the underlying causes of the uprising, made some administrative changes, including the creation of the Santhal Pargana district to address the specific needs and grievances of the Santhals.

Significance and Legacy

The Santhal Uprising was a major event in the history of tribal resistance against colonial oppression. It highlighted the exploitation and suffering of the indigenous tribes under British rule and underscored the need for addressing their grievances.

1. Impact on Colonial Policies:
   • The rebellion forced the British government to reconsider its policies towards the tribal communities. While some administrative adjustments were made, the fundamental exploitative structures remained largely intact.
   • The creation of the Santhal Pargana district was one such measure aimed at providing some level of autonomy and protection to the Santhals.
2. Symbol of Resistance:
   • The Santhal rebellion remains a powerful symbol of resistance against oppression and exploitation. The bravery and resilience of the Santhals continue to inspire tribal movements and struggles for rights and justice in India.
   • Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, the leaders of the uprising, are celebrated as heroes and martyrs in the history of tribal resistance.
3. Cultural Revival:
   • The uprising also triggered a cultural revival among the Santhals and other tribal communities, fostering a sense of identity and solidarity.
   • It highlighted the importance of preserving tribal culture, traditions, and rights in the face of external pressures.

Conclusion

The Santhal Uprising of 1855-56 was a watershed moment in the history of tribal resistance in India. It exposed the deep-seated exploitation and marginalization faced by the tribal communities under British colonial rule and underscored the need for a more equitable and just governance system. The legacy of the uprising continues to inspire contemporary struggles for tribal rights and social justice in India.

(c) Champaran satyagraha (8marks)

The Champaran Satyagraha, launched in 1917, was a pivotal event in the Indian struggle for independence. It was the first civil disobedience movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in British India and marked a significant moment in the history of Indian resistance against colonial exploitation.

Background

The Champaran region, located in present-day Bihar, was a major site for indigo cultivation under the British colonial rule. The European planters enforced the Tinkathia system on local farmers, which mandated that peasants cultivate indigo on 3/20th (or about 15%) of their land and sell it at fixed prices to the planters. This system was highly exploitative and left the farmers impoverished.

1. Economic Exploitation:
   • The Tinkathia system forced farmers to grow indigo, which depleted the soil and reduced the fertility for other crops.
   • The prices paid for indigo were meager, and the farmers had to borrow money at high interest rates to sustain themselves, leading to a cycle of debt and poverty.
2. Injustice and Oppression:
   • The British planters resorted to various forms of coercion and physical intimidation to enforce the Tinkathia system.
   • Farmers who resisted were often subjected to legal harassment, fines, and even physical violence.

Gandhi’s Intervention

In 1917, a group of Champaran peasants, led by Raj Kumar Shukla, approached Mahatma Gandhi and pleaded for his assistance. Gandhi, who had returned to India from South Africa in 1915, was already a well-known figure for his successful civil rights campaigns abroad. He decided to visit Champaran and investigate the farmers’ grievances.

1. Fact-Finding Mission:
   • Gandhi arrived in Champaran in April 1917, accompanied by a team of lawyers and activists, including Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Brijkishore Prasad, and J.B. Kripalani.
   • They conducted a detailed survey, interviewing thousands of farmers to document their complaints and the extent of their suffering.
2. Nonviolent Resistance:
   • Gandhi adopted a strategy of nonviolent resistance (Satyagraha) to address the grievances of the Champaran farmers.
   • He encouraged the farmers to refuse to grow indigo and to defy the unjust laws imposed by the British planters.

The Satyagraha Movement

Gandhi’s campaign in Champaran involved several key components:

1. Mass Mobilization:
   • Gandhi mobilized the local population, instilling a sense of unity and courage among the farmers. Public meetings were held, and awareness was spread about their rights and the injustices they faced.
   • The farmers, inspired by Gandhi’s leadership, began to refuse to cultivate indigo, demanding fair treatment and justice.
2. Legal and Administrative Efforts:
   • Gandhi and his team of lawyers provided legal support to the farmers, challenging the unfair practices of the planters in court.
   • They also engaged with the local administration, pressuring them to take action against the exploitative practices.
3. Education and Health:
   • Gandhi recognized that true empowerment required more than just economic and legal changes. He established schools and clinics to improve the education and health of the local population.
   • This holistic approach aimed at uplifting the entire community and ensuring sustainable development.

Outcome and Significance

The Champaran Satyagraha was successful in achieving its immediate goals:

1. Abolition of the Tinkathia System:
   • The British authorities, faced with growing resistance and international scrutiny, appointed a committee to investigate the farmers’ grievances. Gandhi was also included in this committee.
   • The committee’s findings led to the abolition of the Tinkathia system, and the farmers were granted the freedom to grow crops of their choice.
2. Landmark in Indian Independence Movement:
   • The success of the Champaran Satyagraha marked the beginning of Gandhi’s leadership in the Indian freedom struggle. It demonstrated the power of nonviolent resistance and mass mobilization.
   • It also set a precedent for future movements, such as the Kheda Satyagraha (1918), the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34).
3. Empowerment of the Peasantry:
   • The movement empowered the Indian peasantry, instilling a sense of confidence and agency in their fight against colonial oppression.
   • It highlighted the importance of addressing rural issues and the role of the peasantry in the broader struggle for independence.

Conclusion

The Champaran Satyagraha was a landmark event in the history of India’s fight for independence. It showcased Mahatma Gandhi’s innovative strategy of Satyagraha and the effectiveness of nonviolent resistance against oppressive regimes. The movement not only addressed the immediate economic grievances of the Champaran farmers but also laid the foundation for future mass movements that eventually led to India’s independence in 1947.

(d) Art and architecture of Mauryan period

The Mauryan period, spanning from approximately 322 BCE to 185 BCE, marked a significant era in Indian history characterized by substantial political unification, economic prosperity, and cultural development. The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and reaching its zenith under Emperor Ashoka, is renowned for its contributions to art and architecture. This period saw the establishment of enduring artistic and architectural traditions that influenced subsequent Indian civilizations.

Architecture of the Mauryan Period

1. Palace Complexes and Urban Planning:
   • The Mauryan capital, Pataliputra (modern Patna), was an architectural marvel. Excavations have revealed remnants of grand palaces, fortified walls, and a sophisticated urban layout. The city featured wooden structures and large stone pillars.
   • Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court, described Pataliputra as a city with wooden palaces and a fortified wooden wall, showcasing early urban planning and architectural skills.
2. Stupas:
   • Stupas, or Buddhist burial mounds, became prominent during the Mauryan period, especially under Emperor Ashoka, who embraced and promoted Buddhism. The most famous stupa from this period is the Great Stupa at Sanchi, which Ashoka commissioned.
   • Stupas typically consisted of a hemispherical dome (anda), a central chamber for relics, a circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha), and a harmika and chatra at the top symbolizing the heavenly abode.
3. Rock-Cut Architecture:
   • The Mauryan period saw the development of rock-cut architecture, exemplified by the Barabar Caves in Bihar. These caves, donated by Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha to the Ajivika sect, feature highly polished interiors and simple yet elegant designs.
   • The Lomas Rishi Cave is notable for its imitation of wooden architectural forms in stone, showcasing an early blend of wooden and stone architecture.
4. Pillars:
   • Ashoka’s pillars are among the most iconic architectural achievements of the Mauryan period. These monolithic stone columns, erected throughout the empire, bear inscriptions (edicts) promoting moral and ethical principles based on Buddhism.
   • The pillars are characterized by their finely polished surfaces, intricate capitals often adorned with animal figures like lions, and their symbolic association with the dharma (moral law). The Lion Capital of Sarnath, now the national emblem of India, is a prime example.

Art of the Mauryan Period

1. Sculpture:
   • Mauryan sculpture, especially under Ashoka, saw the creation of sophisticated and refined stone carvings. The Yaksha and Yakshi statues, such as those found at Didarganj (the Didarganj Yakshi), exemplify the high level of craftsmanship. These figures are notable for their detailed depiction, realistic proportions, and polished surfaces.
   • The animal sculptures atop Ashoka’s pillars, such as the lion, elephant, and bull, reflect a combination of realistic and stylized artistic techniques.
2. Terracotta Art:
   • Terracotta art flourished during the Mauryan period, with artisans producing a variety of objects including figurines, plaques, and decorative tiles. These items often depicted deities, everyday scenes, and animals.
   • The terracotta figurines were characterized by their intricate detailing and served both religious and secular purposes.
3. Minor Arts:
   • The Mauryan period also witnessed the development of various minor arts, including jewelry, metalwork, and pottery. These artifacts exhibit a high level of technical skill and aesthetic appeal.
   • Coins from the Mauryan period, made of punch-marked silver, feature various symbols and reflect the economic prosperity and administrative sophistication of the empire.

Influence and Legacy

The art and architecture of the Mauryan period laid the foundation for subsequent developments in Indian culture. The emphasis on monumental architecture, as seen in stupas and pillars, continued in later periods, influencing Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain architectural traditions. The sculptural techniques and artistic themes established during this era also persisted, evolving into more elaborate forms in subsequent Indian art.

Conclusion

The Mauryan period was a formative era in Indian art and architecture, characterized by innovation, sophistication, and the integration of religious and secular themes. The architectural achievements, such as the stupas, rock-cut caves, and Ashokan pillars, alongside the artistic contributions in sculpture and terracotta art, reflect a civilization at its zenith, marked by cultural and spiritual advancements. These contributions not only defined the aesthetic standards of the time but also left an enduring legacy on the Indian subcontinent’s artistic and architectural heritage.

(e) Cave painting of eastern India in ancient period

Cave paintings in Eastern India from the ancient period are fascinating artifacts that offer insights into the region’s prehistoric and historic cultural practices. These paintings, primarily located in Bihar, Odisha, and parts of Jharkhand, provide valuable information about the early human inhabitants, their lifestyles, and their artistic expressions.

Major Sites and Characteristics

1. Khandagiri and Udayagiri Caves, Odisha:

• Location: Near Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• Historical Context: These caves date back to the 2nd century BCE and were built during the reign of King Kharavela of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.
• Characteristics: While primarily known for their architectural significance and inscriptions, the caves also feature some rock carvings and paintings. The art here is indicative of early Jain religious influences and includes motifs of animals, human figures, and various symbols associated with Jainism.
• Significance: The paintings and carvings reflect a blend of religious and royal patronage, showcasing the region’s artistic and cultural advancements during that period.

1. Sitabenga and Jogimara Caves, Chhattisgarh:

• Location: Amarnath region, Chhattisgarh, close to the border with Odisha.
• Historical Context: These caves are believed to date back to the 3rd century BCE and are associated with early Buddhist monastic activities.
• Characteristics: The Jogimara cave contains murals that depict dancers and musicians, often considered some of the earliest examples of Indian cave paintings. The Sitabenga cave also features similar motifs.
• Significance: These paintings are vital for understanding early Indian art forms, particularly in the context of Buddhist monastic life. They provide a glimpse into the cultural and social activities of the period.

1. Bhimbetka Caves, Madhya Pradesh (Though not strictly Eastern India, they provide context for the region’s prehistoric art):

• Location: Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh.
• Historical Context: The Bhimbetka rock shelters are a UNESCO World Heritage site and contain evidence of human habitation dating back to the Paleolithic era.
• Characteristics: The paintings range from depictions of large wild animals, human figures engaged in hunting, dancing, and other activities, to intricate geometric patterns.
• Significance: The Bhimbetka paintings provide a broader context for prehistoric art in India, reflecting similar themes and styles found in Eastern India’s ancient cave paintings.

Themes and Styles

1. Naturalism:

• The cave paintings from this period often exhibit a naturalistic style, depicting animals, humans, and nature with a focus on realistic representation. This includes detailed portrayals of hunting scenes, animals in motion, and daily activities.

1. Religious and Cultural Symbolism:

• Many paintings have religious connotations, especially those from later periods, reflecting the influence of Jainism and Buddhism. Symbols, deities, and religious motifs are common, showcasing the spiritual life of the inhabitants.

1. Social Life and Activities:

• The paintings also offer insights into the social life of ancient communities, depicting scenes of dance, music, and communal activities. These representations are crucial for understanding the cultural practices and societal norms of the time.

Techniques and Materials

1. Pigments:

• The artists used natural pigments derived from minerals and organic materials. Common colors included red ochre, black from charcoal, white from limestone, and yellow from clay.

1. Application Methods:

• The paintings were typically created using fingers, brushes made from animal hair, and sticks. The techniques varied from simple outlines to more elaborate shading and filling.

Preservation and Challenges

1. Preservation:

• The preservation of these ancient artworks poses significant challenges due to natural erosion, human interference, and lack of protective measures. Efforts by archaeological and conservation bodies aim to document and protect these sites.

1. Documentation:

• Ongoing research and excavation continue to uncover new sites and provide better understanding and documentation of these ancient artworks. Digital preservation techniques are also being employed to safeguard these cultural treasures.

Conclusion

The cave paintings of Eastern India from the ancient period are invaluable cultural artifacts that provide a window into the lives, beliefs, and artistic expressions of early human societies. They reflect a rich tapestry of naturalistic art, religious symbolism, and social documentation, offering profound insights into the prehistoric and early historic periods of the region. These artworks not only enhance our understanding of India’s cultural heritage but also underscore the importance of preserving such irreplaceable historical treasures.